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Schedules of reinforcement matter because HOW OFTEN a reward is given, not just whether it is given, changes how strongly and how persistently a behaviour is learned. Continuous reinforcement rewards every single correct response, while partial (intermittent) reinforcement rewards only some responses. For example, imagine training a dog to sit: rewarding every single sit teaches the behaviour fastest, but rewarding it only sometimes makes the dog keep trying for far longer once rewards stop.

Reinforcement schedules combine two dimensions: fixed vs variable (how predictable the reward timing is) and ratio vs interval (whether reward depends on the NUMBER of responses or the TIME elapsed). A fixed-ratio schedule rewards after a set number of responses, e.g. a piece-rate factory worker paid every tenth item. A variable-ratio schedule rewards after an unpredictable number of responses, e.g. a slot machine that pays out on an unpredictable spin. A fixed-interval schedule rewards the first response after a set time, e.g. checking the post once a day. A variable-interval schedule rewards the first response after an unpredictable time, e.g. refreshing a page for a random notification. For example, imagine a gambler who keeps playing a slot machine for hours, that persistence reflects a variable-ratio schedule, the type that produces the highest, steadiest response rate. In practice, this means gambling behaviour is so hard to extinguish precisely because it runs on a variable-ratio schedule, not because of any special property of money itself.

• A trainer moves a dog from treats every time to occasional treats, and finds the behaviour becomes much harder to extinguish. What is this phenomenon called?
• A researcher plots cumulative responses over time and sees a steady, moderate rate with no post-reward pauses and no scalloping. Which schedule produces this pattern?
• A child's tantrums are ignored most of the time, but a parent occasionally gives in when especially tired. Which schedule is inadvertently being used, and with what consequence?
• A token economy on a rehabilitation ward gives tokens exchangeable for privileges. What is the correct term for the tokens themselves in learning theory?

• Variable-ratio schedule, reward after an unpredictable number of responses, unlike fixed-ratio, which rewards after a set, predictable number of responses.
• Fixed-interval schedule, reward for the first response after a set time, whereas variable-interval rewards the first response after an unpredictable time.
• Partial reinforcement, only some responses are rewarded, rather than continuous reinforcement, which rewards every single response and is learned fastest but extinguishes quickest.
• Schedules of reinforcement, how OFTEN an already-learned response is rewarded, unlike shaping, which reinforces successive approximations toward a brand-new target behaviour.

• That schedule produces a very high steady rate rather than moderate.
• That arrangement rewards every response rather than intermittently.
• That effect concerns reward displacing internal motivation.
• That describes a response reappearing after a rest interval.
• That describes responding to stimuli similar to the trained one.

• Name the learning, social or research principle being tested before reading the options.
• Identify the antecedent, behaviour, consequence or cognitive process in the vignette.
• Compare the direction of effect with the nearest competing principle.
• Apply the same rule to a new example to confirm that the answer transfers.