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Social comparison theory explains why people evaluate themselves not against an absolute standard, but against other people, and why the choice of comparison target matters so much for self-esteem and mood. Festinger proposed people have an inbuilt drive to evaluate their own abilities and opinions, and do so by comparing themselves with others they see as similar. For example, imagine a junior doctor judging their own competence not against some fixed external standard, but by comparing themselves specifically with peers at the same stage of training.

Upward comparison is comparing oneself with someone perceived as better off, which can be motivating but can also lower self-esteem if the gap feels unbridgeable. Downward comparison is comparing oneself with someone perceived as worse off, which tends to protect or boost self-esteem. For example, imagine a patient in a support group who feels reassured after comparing their own progress with someone earlier in recovery (downward comparison), versus feeling discouraged after comparing themselves with someone who has fully recovered (upward comparison). In practice, this means social media use, which constantly exposes people to curated, favourable comparison targets, is linked to increased upward comparison and can worsen mood and self-esteem in vulnerable individuals.

• Festinger's original 1954 formulation proposed that people prefer to evaluate their abilities against a particular kind of other person. Which kind did he specify?
• An athlete deliberately trains alongside someone slightly better than herself and finds her own performance improves. Which use of upward comparison does this illustrate?
• Festinger also proposed a second theory concerning the discomfort felt when behaviour and belief conflict. What is that second theory called?
• A patient newly diagnosed with cancer chooses to meet others further along the same treatment path rather than reading survival statistics. Which function is this comparison serving?

• Upward comparison, comparing with someone perceived as better off, unlike downward comparison, which compares with someone perceived as worse off.
• Social comparison theory, judging the self relative to similar others, rather than cognitive dissonance, which is the discomfort from holding two conflicting beliefs or attitudes.
• Downward comparison, tends to protect self-esteem, whereas upward comparison can either motivate or lower self-esteem depending on how attainable the gap feels.

• That direction is one type of comparison but not his stated preference.
• That direction serves self-enhancement rather than accurate evaluation.
• A dissimilar comparison provides little useful information.
• Accurate evaluation is typically served by similar others.
• Nothing in the account suggests demoralisation or giving up.

• Name the learning, social or research principle being tested before reading the options.
• Identify the antecedent, behaviour, consequence or cognitive process in the vignette.
• Compare the direction of effect with the nearest competing principle.
• Apply the same rule to a new example to confirm that the answer transfers.